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Double Underscore Methods and Attributes in Python

Double Underscore Methods and Attributes in Python

The builtin dir() method, when applied on a string, or a function, class, dict, tuple etc. reveals a host of double underscore methods(or functions), attributes (or variables), classes and other objects. These are called dunder objects, short for double underscore in their names. We'll talk about dunder methods and attributes today. These are also known as magic methods and magic attributes. Let's have a quick glance at what we will be 'tackling' today.

Dunder Methods

Let's begin with dunder methods, we will look at dunder attributes later. Consider a string variable.

Barring __doc__, each element in the above list is a dunder method. So, what is a dunder method? A dunder method is an implicit function, that is being called behind the scenes of an explicit operation or a function. For example, when you are comparing one string to another string, ( e.g. >>> 'stringOne' 'stringTwo' # False ), then the __eq__ method is being called. Let's get some help from Python on this method.

Similarly, >>> 'stringOne' != 'stringTwo' is calling the __ne__ method in the background.

Dunder Atributes

Dunder attributes vary from object to object, much like dunder methods. There is no fixed list of mandatory dunder attributes associated with an object, but a few are more prominent than others. For example, the __name__ attribute of a module gives us the name of the module itself, __doc__ attribute of a module gives a brief description of a module if it is defined, the __file__ attribute of a module gives the location of the module in your system, and so on. Since we were on strings when we left off, let's wrap that up first. The only dunder attribute associated with a string is the __doc__ attribute.

So that wasn't of much help. Let's have a look at the dunder attributes of modules. To avoid confusion, we will keep a narrow field of view by concentrating on string dunder attributes, and leave other objects aside.

So, the only really useful dunder attributes in modules are __name__, __doc__ & __file__. Note that not all modules might have these set(i.e. the variables will exist, they might not be populated with values. Also, the __builtins__ doesn't have __file__ at all.), especially user-defined modules. That said, Python developers have made a conscious effort to include these in every module they ship with the installation.

You may explore the dunder elements of other objects, using the builtin help() method and a bit of Googling. The list comprehension we used earlier is handy to list down the dunder elements, and then you can evaluate each of them one by one.

Using dunder attributes of a module

__doc__

The __doc__ attribute provides a succinct description of the module. Let's see how we can set it and how someone else, who is importing your module, can use it effectively.

Let's import the module.

__file__

The sole purpose of the __file__ attribute is to tell the user about the location of the module. We don't need to set it.

__name__

The __name__ attribute is incredibly useful. You may have encountered something like if __name__ '__main__'. This if construct is used to execute the top-level code(i.e. at the first indent level) of a script ONLY IF it is being run directly(i.e. by double-clicking the .py file), and not if the module is being imported into another file.

Let's look at this in detail.

In other programming languages such as C++, there is a main() function (it has to named main, or else the code doesn't compile), declared explicitly by the user, from which the execution of a program begins. In Python, the main() function is composed of all the top-level code i.e. Manual self-destruction mac os. all statements written at indentation level 0. That's it, you don't have to declare the main() function, Python does it by itself.

The top-level code in a Python script gets executed as soon as it is run via command line (i.e. > python myfile.py) or run directly by executing a .py file.

The __name__ dunder attribute evaluates to the name of the module itself. However, if the module is being run directly by either of the two methods stated above, then the __name__ attribute is set to the string '__main__'. This enables the user to check if the script is being run directly (command line or execution of .py file) or it is being imported. If the code is being imported into another module, the function and class definitions will be imported, but the top-level code will not get executed.

Below is a simple Python script that contains a function, a print statement, and the if construct. If the script is being run directly, the function is called with a sample value, and not if the script is being imported as a module.

When the above script is run directly via command line or by executing prime.py

When the above script is being imported as a module

I hope this was useful to you. If you have any questions, please post it in the comment below. Thank you.

See also:

Contents

• Deriving

Given that it is useful and common to specify version numbers forPython modules, and given that different ways of doing this have grownorganically within the Python community, it is useful to establishstandard conventions for module authors to adhere to and reference.This informational PEP describes best practices for Python moduleauthors who want to define the version number of their Python module.

Conformance with this PEP is optional, however other Python tools(such as distutils2[1]) may be adapted to use the conventionsdefined here.

This PEP was formally rejected on 2021-04-14. The packaging ecosystemhas changed significantly in the intervening years since this PEP wasfirst written, and APIs such as importlib.metadata.versions()[11]provide for a much better experience.

Alice is writing a new module, called alice, which she wants toshare with other Python developers. alice is a simple module andlives in one file, alice.py. Alice wants to specify a versionnumber so that her users can tell which version they are using.Because her module lives entirely in one file, she wants to add theversion number to that file.

Bob has written a module called bob which he has shared with manyusers. bob.py contains a version number for the convenience ofhis users. Bob learns about the Cheeseshop [2], and adds some simplepackaging using classic distutils so that he can upload The BobBundle to the Cheeseshop. Because bob.py already specifies aversion number which his users can access programmatically, he wantsthe same API to continue to work even though his users now get it fromthe Cheeseshop.

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Carol maintains several namespace packages, each of which areindependently developed and distributed. In order for her users toproperly specify dependencies on the right versions of her packages,she specifies the version numbers in the namespace package'ssetup.py file. Because Carol wants to have to update one versionnumber per package, she specifies the version number in her module andhas the setup.py extract the module version number when she buildsthe sdist archive.

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David maintains a package in the standard library, and also producesstandalone versions for other versions of Python. The standardlibrary copy defines the version number in the module, and this sameversion number is used for the standalone distributions as well.

Python modules, both in the standard library and available from thirdparties, have long included version numbers. There are establishedde facto standards for describing version numbers, and many ad-hocways have grown organically over the years. Often, version numberscan be retrieved from a module programmatically, by importing themodule and inspecting an attribute. Classic Python distutilssetup() functions [3] describe a version argument where therelease's version number can be specified. PEP 8[4] describes theuse of a module attribute called __version__ for recording'Subversion, CVS, or RCS' version strings using keyword expansion. Inthe PEP author's own email archives, the earliest example of the useof an __version__ module attribute by independent moduledevelopers dates back to 1995.

Another example of version information is the sqlite3 [5] modulewith its sqlite_version_info, version, and version_infoattributes. It may not be immediately obvious which attributecontains a version number for the module, and which contains a versionnumber for the underlying SQLite3 library.

This informational PEP codifies established practice, and recommendsstandard ways of describing module version numbers, along with someuse cases for when -- and when not Orchardstra mac os. -- to include them. Its adoptionby module authors is purely voluntary; packaging tools in the standardlibrary will provide optional support for the standards definedherein, and other tools in the Python universe may comply as well.

1. In general, modules in the standard library SHOULD NOT have versionnumbers. They implicitly carry the version number of the Pythonrelease they are included in.
2. On a case-by-case basis, standard library modules which are alsoreleased in standalone form for other Python versions MAY include amodule version number when included in the standard library, andSHOULD include a version number when packaged separately.
3. When a module (or package) includes a version number, the versionSHOULD be available in the __version__ attribute.
4. For modules which live inside a namespace package, the moduleSHOULD include the __version__ attribute. The namespacepackage itself SHOULD NOT include its own __version__attribute.
5. The __version__ attribute's value SHOULD be a string.
6. Module version numbers SHOULD conform to the normalized versionformat specified in PEP 386[6].
7. Module version numbers SHOULD NOT contain version control systemsupplied revision numbers, or any other semantically differentversion numbers (e.g. underlying library version number).
8. The version attribute in a classic distutils setup.pyfile, or the PEP 345[7]Version metadata field SHOULD bederived from the __version__ field, or vice versa.

Retrieving the version number from a third party package:

Retrieving the version number from a standard library package that isalso distributed as a standalone module:

Version numbers for namespace packages:

Module version numbers can appear in at least two places, andsometimes more. For example, in accordance with this PEP, they areavailable programmatically on the module's __version__ attribute.In a classic distutils setup.py file, the setup() functiontakes a version argument, while the distutils2 setup.cfg filehas a version key. The version number must also get into the PEP345 metadata, preferably when the sdist archive is built. It'sdesirable for module authors to only have to specify the versionnumber once, and have all the other uses derive from this singledefinition.

This could be done in any number of ways, a few of which are outlinedbelow. These are included for illustrative purposes only and are notintended to be definitive, complete, or all-encompassing. Otherapproaches are possible, and some included below may have limitationsthat prevent their use in some situations.

Let's say Elle adds this attribute to her module file elle.py:

Classic distutils

In classic distutils, the simplest way to add the version string tothe setup() function in setup.py is to do something likethis:

In the PEP author's experience however, this can fail in some cases,such as when the module uses automatic Python 3 conversion via the2to3 program (because setup.py is executed by Python 3 beforethe elle Bad faith mac os. module has been converted).

In that case, it's not much more difficult to write a little code toparse the __version__ from the file rather than importing it.Without providing too much detail, it's likely that modules such asdistutils2 will provide a way to parse version strings from files.E.g.:

Distutils2

The __name__ dunder attribute evaluates to the name of the module itself. However, if the module is being run directly by either of the two methods stated above, then the __name__ attribute is set to the string '__main__'. This enables the user to check if the script is being run directly (command line or execution of .py file) or it is being imported. If the code is being imported into another module, the function and class definitions will be imported, but the top-level code will not get executed.

Below is a simple Python script that contains a function, a print statement, and the if construct. If the script is being run directly, the function is called with a sample value, and not if the script is being imported as a module.

When the above script is run directly via command line or by executing prime.py

When the above script is being imported as a module

I hope this was useful to you. If you have any questions, please post it in the comment below. Thank you.

See also:

Contents

• Deriving

Given that it is useful and common to specify version numbers forPython modules, and given that different ways of doing this have grownorganically within the Python community, it is useful to establishstandard conventions for module authors to adhere to and reference.This informational PEP describes best practices for Python moduleauthors who want to define the version number of their Python module.

Conformance with this PEP is optional, however other Python tools(such as distutils2[1]) may be adapted to use the conventionsdefined here.

This PEP was formally rejected on 2021-04-14. The packaging ecosystemhas changed significantly in the intervening years since this PEP wasfirst written, and APIs such as importlib.metadata.versions()[11]provide for a much better experience.

Alice is writing a new module, called alice, which she wants toshare with other Python developers. alice is a simple module andlives in one file, alice.py. Alice wants to specify a versionnumber so that her users can tell which version they are using.Because her module lives entirely in one file, she wants to add theversion number to that file.

Bob has written a module called bob which he has shared with manyusers. bob.py contains a version number for the convenience ofhis users. Bob learns about the Cheeseshop [2], and adds some simplepackaging using classic distutils so that he can upload The BobBundle to the Cheeseshop. Because bob.py already specifies aversion number which his users can access programmatically, he wantsthe same API to continue to work even though his users now get it fromthe Cheeseshop.

Dunder Mac Os Catalina

Carol maintains several namespace packages, each of which areindependently developed and distributed. In order for her users toproperly specify dependencies on the right versions of her packages,she specifies the version numbers in the namespace package'ssetup.py file. Because Carol wants to have to update one versionnumber per package, she specifies the version number in her module andhas the setup.py extract the module version number when she buildsthe sdist archive.

Dunder Mac Os Update

David maintains a package in the standard library, and also producesstandalone versions for other versions of Python. The standardlibrary copy defines the version number in the module, and this sameversion number is used for the standalone distributions as well.

Python modules, both in the standard library and available from thirdparties, have long included version numbers. There are establishedde facto standards for describing version numbers, and many ad-hocways have grown organically over the years. Often, version numberscan be retrieved from a module programmatically, by importing themodule and inspecting an attribute. Classic Python distutilssetup() functions [3] describe a version argument where therelease's version number can be specified. PEP 8[4] describes theuse of a module attribute called __version__ for recording'Subversion, CVS, or RCS' version strings using keyword expansion. Inthe PEP author's own email archives, the earliest example of the useof an __version__ module attribute by independent moduledevelopers dates back to 1995.

Another example of version information is the sqlite3 [5] modulewith its sqlite_version_info, version, and version_infoattributes. It may not be immediately obvious which attributecontains a version number for the module, and which contains a versionnumber for the underlying SQLite3 library.

This informational PEP codifies established practice, and recommendsstandard ways of describing module version numbers, along with someuse cases for when -- and when not Orchardstra mac os. -- to include them. Its adoptionby module authors is purely voluntary; packaging tools in the standardlibrary will provide optional support for the standards definedherein, and other tools in the Python universe may comply as well.

1. In general, modules in the standard library SHOULD NOT have versionnumbers. They implicitly carry the version number of the Pythonrelease they are included in.
2. On a case-by-case basis, standard library modules which are alsoreleased in standalone form for other Python versions MAY include amodule version number when included in the standard library, andSHOULD include a version number when packaged separately.
3. When a module (or package) includes a version number, the versionSHOULD be available in the __version__ attribute.
4. For modules which live inside a namespace package, the moduleSHOULD include the __version__ attribute. The namespacepackage itself SHOULD NOT include its own __version__attribute.
5. The __version__ attribute's value SHOULD be a string.
6. Module version numbers SHOULD conform to the normalized versionformat specified in PEP 386[6].
7. Module version numbers SHOULD NOT contain version control systemsupplied revision numbers, or any other semantically differentversion numbers (e.g. underlying library version number).
8. The version attribute in a classic distutils setup.pyfile, or the PEP 345[7]Version metadata field SHOULD bederived from the __version__ field, or vice versa.

Retrieving the version number from a third party package:

Retrieving the version number from a standard library package that isalso distributed as a standalone module:

Version numbers for namespace packages:

Module version numbers can appear in at least two places, andsometimes more. For example, in accordance with this PEP, they areavailable programmatically on the module's __version__ attribute.In a classic distutils setup.py file, the setup() functiontakes a version argument, while the distutils2 setup.cfg filehas a version key. The version number must also get into the PEP345 metadata, preferably when the sdist archive is built. It'sdesirable for module authors to only have to specify the versionnumber once, and have all the other uses derive from this singledefinition.

This could be done in any number of ways, a few of which are outlinedbelow. These are included for illustrative purposes only and are notintended to be definitive, complete, or all-encompassing. Otherapproaches are possible, and some included below may have limitationsthat prevent their use in some situations.

Let's say Elle adds this attribute to her module file elle.py:

Classic distutils

In classic distutils, the simplest way to add the version string tothe setup() function in setup.py is to do something likethis:

In the PEP author's experience however, this can fail in some cases,such as when the module uses automatic Python 3 conversion via the2to3 program (because setup.py is executed by Python 3 beforethe elle Bad faith mac os. module has been converted).

In that case, it's not much more difficult to write a little code toparse the __version__ from the file rather than importing it.Without providing too much detail, it's likely that modules such asdistutils2 will provide a way to parse version strings from files.E.g.:

Distutils2

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Because the distutils2 style setup.cfg is declarative, we can'trun any code to extract the __version__ attribute, either viaimport or via parsing.

In consultation with the distutils-sig [9], two options areproposed. Both entail containing the version number in a file, anddeclaring that file in the setup.cfg. When the entire contents ofthe file contains the version number, the version-file key will beused:

When the version number is contained within a larger file, e.g. ofPython code, such that the file must be parsed to extract the version,the key version-from-file will be used:

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A parsing method similar to that described above will be performed onthe file named after the colon. The exact recipe for doing this willbe discussed in the appropriate distutils2 development forum.

An alternative is to only define the version number in setup.cfgand use the pkgutil module [8] to make it availableprogrammatically. E.g. in elle.py:

PEP 376[10] defines a standard for static metadata, but doesn'tdescribe the process by which this metadata gets created. It ishighly desirable for the derived version information to be placed intothe PEP 376.dist-info metadata at build-time rather thaninstall-time. This way, the metadata will be available forintrospection even when the code is not installed.

This document has been placed in the public domain.